Contradiction
A Contradiction is committed when two opposing statements are simultaneously
asserted. For example， saying “it is raining and it is not raining” is a co
ntradiction. Typically， however， the arguer obscures the contradiction to th
e point that the argument can be quite compelling. Take， for instance， the f
ollowing argument：
“We cannot know anything， because we intuitively realize that our thoughts a
re unreliable.“
This argument has an air of reasonableness to it. But “intuitively realize”
means “to know.” Thus the arguer is in essence saying that we know that we d
on't know anything. This is self-contradictory.
Equivocation
Equivocation is the use of a word in more than one sense during an argument.
This technique is often used by politicians to leave themselves an “out.” I
f someone objects to a particular statement， the politician can simply claim
the other meaning.
Example：
Individual rights must be championed by the government. It is right for one
to believe in God. So government should promote the belief in God.
In this argument， right is used ambiguously. In the phrase “individual right
s“ it is used in the sense of a privilege， whereas in the second sentence ri
ght is used to mean proper or moral. The questionable conclusion is possible
only if the arguer is allowed to play with the meaning of the critical word
right.
Circular Reasoning
Circular reasoning involves assuming as a premise that which you are trying
to prove. Intuitively， it may seem that no one would fall for such an argume
nt. However， the conclusion may appear to state something additional， or the
argument may be so long that the reader may forget that the conclusion was
stated as a premise.
