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Langue and parole ÓïÑÔºÍÑÔÓï
The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.
Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
 
Competence and performance ÓïÑÔÄÜÁ¦ºÍÓïÑÔÔËÓÃ
Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950’s.
He defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify the language rules.





















Chapter Two Phonology
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1.¿íʽÒô±êBroad transcription
The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.
2.խʽÒô±êNarrow transcription
The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.
3.ÇåÒôVoiceless
When the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.
4.×ÇÒôVoicing
Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.
5.ÔªÒôVowel
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.
6.¸¨ÒôConsonants
The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.
7.ÒôλPhoneme
The basic unit in phonology, it’s a collection of distinctive phonetic features.
8.Òôλ±äÌåAllophones
Different phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.
9.ÒôËØphone
A phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, it’s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.
10.×îС¶ÔÁ¢¶ÔMinimal pair
When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.
11.³¬ÇзÖÌØÕ÷Suprasegmental
The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.
12.»¥²¹·Ö²¼complementary distribution    P35
Two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.
13.ÓïÑÔµÄÓïÒôý½éPhonic medium of language
 The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.
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14.±¬ÆÆÒôstops
When a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.
they are[b] [p] [t] [d] [k] [g]
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1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been over5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.
2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.
3.Phonetic  ×é³É
 ¢ÅArticulatory phonetics ·¢ÒôÓïÒôѧlongest established, mostly developed
  ¢ÆAuditory   phonetics  Ìý¾õÓïÒôѧ
  ¢ÇAcoustic   phonetics  ÉùѧÓïÒôѧ
4.articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech
Pharyngeal cavity– ÑÊÇ»
Oral cavity– ¿ÚÇ»greatest source of modification of air stream found here
Nasal cavity– ±ÇÇ»
5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced as is used in Arabic and French.
6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in the pronunciation of[k] and[g],the narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to the sound[j];the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].
7.nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [η]